Bremsstrahlung
● Bremsstrahlung radiation is electromagnetic radiation that is produced when
charged particles are deflected (decelerated) while traveling near an atomic nucleus.
• Bremsstrahlung is almost exclusively associated with electrons (beta particles)
because the latter are easily deflected.
• Large particles (e.g., alpha particles) do not produce significant bremsstrahlung
because they travel in straight lines. Since they aren’t deflected to any real extent,
bremsstrahlung production is insignificant.
• Bremsstrahlung photons may have any energy up to the energy of the incident
particle.
• Bremmstrahlung is most intense when:
Newton's Three Laws of Motion
Newton's three laws of movement might be expressed as observes:
Newton's 1st law:
Every object in a state of uniform motion will remain in that state of motion unless an external force acts on it.
The primary regulation, additionally called the law of inactivity, was spearheaded by Galileo. This was a seriously reasonable jump since it was unrealistic in Galileo's opportunity to notice a moving item without at minimum a few frictional powers hauling against the movement. Truth be told, for north of 1,000 years before Galileo, taught people trusted Aristotle's plan that, any place there is movement, there is an outer power delivering that movement.
Newton's 2nd law:
PN Junction Diode
PN Junctuon Diode
A PN Junction Diode is one of the most straightforward semiconductor gadgets around, and which has the electrical trait of going flow through itself in one course as it were. Be that as it may, dissimilar to a resistor, a diode doesn't act directly regarding the applied voltage.A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction.
There are two working locales and three potential "biasing" conditions for the standard Junction Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias - No outer voltage potential is applied to the PN intersection diode.
2. Switch Bias - The voltage potential is associated negative, (- ve) to the P-type material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which expands the PN intersection diode's width.
3. Forward Bias - The voltage potential is associated positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and negative, (- ve) to the N-type material across the diode which diminishes the PN intersection diodes width.
Zero Biased PN Junction Diode
The potential hindrance that currently exists beats the dispersion of any greater larger part transporters across the intersection down. In any case, the potential obstruction helps minority transporters (scarcely any free electrons in the P-area and hardly any openings in the N-district) to float across the intersection.
Then, at that point, an "Balance" or adjust will be laid out when the greater part transporters are equivalent and both moving in inverse headings, so the net outcome is zero current streaming in the circuit. Whenever this happens the intersection is supposed to be in a territory of "Dynamic Equilibrium".
The minority transporters are continually produced because of nuclear power so this condition of harmony can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN intersection causing an increment in the age of minority transporters, consequently bringing about an expansion in spillage flow yet an electric flow can't stream since no circuit has been associated with the PN intersection.
Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
Whenever a diode is associated in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material draws in electrons towards the positive terminal and away from the intersection, while the openings in the P-type end are additionally drawn in away from the intersection towards the negative anode.
The net outcome is that the consumption layer becomes more extensive because of an absence of electrons and openings and presents a high impedance way, just about a separator and a high potential obstruction is made across the intersection in this way keeping current from moving through the semiconductor material.
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
Whenever a diode is associated in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. Assuming that this outer voltage becomes more noteworthy than the worth of the possible boundary, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential hindrances resistance will be survived and current will begin to stream.
This is on the grounds that the negative voltage pushes or repulses electrons towards the intersection giving them the energy to get over and consolidate with the openings being pushed the other way towards the intersection by the positive voltage. This outcomes in a qualities bend of zero current streaming up to this voltage point, called the "knee" on the static bends and afterward a high current move through the diode with little expansion in the outer voltage as displayed beneath
Networks
Reciprocal networks
A network is said to be reciprocal if the voltage appearing at port 2 due to
a current applied at port 1 is the same as the voltage appearing at port 1
when the same current is applied to port 2. Exchanging voltage and current
results in an equivalent definition of reciprocity. A network that consists
entirely of linear passive components (that is, resistors, capacitors and
inductors) is usually reciprocal, a notable exception being passive
circulators and isolators that contain magnetized materials. In general, it
will not be reciprocal if it contains active components such as generators
or transistors.
Reciprocity in electrical networks is a property of a circuit that relates
voltages and currents at two points. The reciprocity theorem states that the
current at one point in a circuit due to a voltage at a second point is the
same as the current at the second point due to the same voltage at the first.
The reciprocity theorem is valid for almost all passive netwonetworks.
Symmetrical networks
A network is symmetrical if its input impedance is equal to its output impedance. Most often, but not necessarily,
symmetrical networks are also physically symmetrical. Sometimes also antimetrical networks are of interest. These
are networks where the input and output impedances are the duals of each othnetwork
Lossless network
A lossless network is one, that contains no resistors or other dissipative elements.
Two-port network
Two-port network
A two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network or quadripole) is an
electrical network (circuit) or device with two pairs of terminals to connect to
external circuits. Two terminals constitute a port if the currents applied to them
satisfy the essential requirement known as the port condition: the electric current
entering one terminal must equal the current emerging from the other terminal on
the same port. The ports constitute interfaces where the network connects to other
networks, the points where signals are applied or outputs are taken. In a two-port
network, often port 1 is considered the input port, and port 2 is considered the
output port.
The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit analysis techniques
to isolate portions of larger circuits. A two-port network is regarded as a "black
box" with its properties specified by a matrix of numbers. This allows the response
of the network to signals applied to the ports to be calculated easily, without solving for all the internal voltages
and currents in the network. It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily. For example, transistors
are often regarded as two-ports, characterized by their h-parameters (see below) which are listed by the
manufacturer. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be regarded as a two-port network provided that it does not
contain an independent source and satisfies the port conditions.
Examples of circuits analyzed as two-ports are filters, matching networks, transmission lines, transformers, and
small-signal models for transistors (such as the hybrid-pi model). The analysis of passive two-port networks is an
outgrowth of reciprocity theorems first derived by Lorentz.
In two-port mathematical models, the network is described by a 2 by 2 square matrix of complex numbers. The
common models that are used are referred to as z-parameters, y-parameters, h-parameters, g-parameters, and
ABCD-parameters, each described individually below. These are all limited to linear networks since an underlying
assumption of their derivation is that any given circuit condition is a linear superposition of various short-circuit
and open-circuit conditions. They are usually expressed in matrix notation, and they establish relations between the
variables
V1 , voltage across port 1
I1, current into port 1
V2 , voltage across port 2
I2, current into port 2
which are shown in figure 1. The difference between the various models lies in which of these variables are regarded
as the independent variables. These current and voltage variables are most useful at low-to-moderate frequencies.
At high frequencies (e.g., microwave frequencies), the use of power and energy variables is more appropriate, and
the two-port current-voltage approach is replaced by an approach based upon scattering parameters.
The port conditions
The port condition is that a pair of poles of a circuit is considered a port if and only if the current flowing into one
pole from outside the circuit is equal to the current flowing out of the other pole into the external circuit.
Equivalently, the algebraic sum of the currents flowing into the two poles from the external circuit must be zero
Filter Circuit
Filter Circuit:
Filters are electrical networks used to separate alternating from direct current components or to separate a group of
A.C. components included within a particular frequency range from those lying outside this range. So a filter can
be defined as a network that in its ideal form has at least one range of frequency in which the attenuation is zero
(pass hand) and at least one range of frequency in which the attenuation is infinite (attenuation band). The
frequencies which separate a pass band and attenuation hand are called cut-off frequencies. To achieve the desired
effect, the filter is designed to provide a low attenuation for frequency components within a particular pass band
range and a high attenuation at frequencies within other stop band ranges. The networks provide a uniform response
over a wide range of frequencies than that obtained with resonant circuits. Filters are commonly classified in
accordance with their selectivity characteristics as below :
(a) A low pass filter. It transmits all frequencies below a limiting frequency 𝑓𝑐
. known as cut-off frequency. and
stops all these above this frequency.
(b) A high pass filter. It passes frequencies above the cut-off freque
ncy and stops all those below this frequency.
(c) A band pass filter. It passes frequencies in a particular hand between two cut-off frequencies and stops those
above and below this band limit.
(d) A band elimination filter. It stops frequencies within a specified band and passes those above and below the
units of this hand.